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{{अनुवाद}}
'''भावना''' धागु मनुयागु मानसिकता नाप स्वागु खंग्व खः।
An '''emotion''' is a term for a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of [[feeling]]s, [[thought]]s, and [[behavior]]. Emotions are subjective experiences, or experienced from a individual point of view. Emotion is often associated with [[Mood (psychology)|mood]], [[temperament]], [[personality]], and [[disposition]]. For example: confused, excited, guilty, anxious, angry, sad, confident, embarrassed, happy, disgusted, frightened, cautious, smug, lonely, lovestruck, jealous, surprised, shy, apathetic, powerful, unfair, and euphoric.
==Etymology and definitions==
The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French ''émotion'' and ''émouvoir''. This is based on the Latin ''emovere'', where ''e-'' (variant of ''ex''-) means 'out' and ''movere'' means 'move'.<ref>[http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/emotion.htm Emotional Competency discussion of emotion]</ref> The related term "motivation" is also derived from ''movere''.
Emotions can be divided between 'cognitive' theories of emotions and 'non-cognitive' theories of emotions; or instinctual emotions (from the amgdala), and cognitive emotions (from the prefrontal cortex). Some psychologists divide emotions into basic and complex categories, where base emotions lead to more complex ones. Emotions can be categorized by its duration. Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (e.g. surprise) where others can last years (e.g. love). No definitive taxonomy exists.
A related distinction is between the emotion and the results of the emotion, principally behaviours and emotional expressions. People often behave in certain ways as a direct result of their emotional state, such as crying, fighting or fleeing. Yet again, if one can have the emotion without the corresponding behaviour then we may consider the behaviour not to be essential to the emotion. However some theorists such as the Dutch psychologist [[Nico Frijda]] hold a functionalist approach to emotions. Frijda argues that emotions have evolved for a particular function, such as to keep the subject safe. If the behaviours associated with an emotion are the determining factor for the very existence of that emotion then goal-directed behaviour should be regarded as essential to the emotion. Yet since we recognise that the behaviour need not necessarily occur, we can stipulate that emotions involve what are called 'action tendencies'. So for instance, fear involves the tendency to flee, which means that the probability that the subject will flee from a given situation is increased when he is undergoing fear.
==Classification==
{{Main|Emotion classification}}
There has been considerable debate concerning how emotions should be classified. Firstly, are emotions distinctive discrete states or do they vary more smoothly along one or more underlying dimensions? The circumplex model of James Russell (1979) is an example of the latter, placing emotions along bi-polar dimensions of [[Valence (psychology)|valence]] and arousal. Another popular option is to divide emotions into basic and complex categories, where some emotions are considered foundational to the existence of others (e.g. [[Paul Ekman]]). In this respect complex emotions may be regarded as developments upon basic emotions. Such development may occur due to cultural conditioning or association. Alternatively, analogous to the way [[primary color]]s combine, ''primary emotions'' could blend together to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt.
[[Robert Plutchik]] proposed a three-dimensional "circumplex model" which describes the relations among emotions. This model is similar to a color wheel. The vertical dimension represents intensity, and the circle represents degrees of similarity among the emotions. He posited eight primary emotion dimensions arranged as four pairs of opposites. <ref>[http://www.fractal.org/Bewustzijns-Besturings-Model/Nature-of-emotions.htm The Nature of Emotions<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Some have also argued for the existence of [[meta-emotion]]s which are emotions about emotions.<ref>[http://www.abdn.ac.uk/philosophy/staff/documents/MetaemotionsGPS732006.pdf Jaeger, C., & Bartsch, A. (2006), "Meta-emotions". Grazer Philosophische Studien, 73, 179–204.]</ref> In general discussion centres around which emotions or dimensions should be considered foundational. Combined views are also available.
Another important means of distinguishing emotions concerns their occurrence in time. Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (e.g. surprise) where others can last years (e.g. love). The latter could be regarded as a long term ''tendency'' to have an emotion regarding a certain object rather than an emotion proper (though this is disputed). A distinction is then made between emotion episodes and emotional dispositions. Dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions, though about different objects. For example an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others. Finally some theorists (e.g. [[Klaus Scherer]], 2005) place emotions within a more general category of 'affective states'. Where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (e.g. hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.
==Theories==
Theories about emotions stretch back at least as far as the Ancient Greek [[Stoicism|Stoics]], as well as [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]. We also see sophisticated theories in the works of philosophers such as [[René Descartes]]<ref>See Philip Fisher (1999) ''Wonder, The Rainbow and the Aesthetics of Rare Experiences'' for an introduction</ref>, [[Baruch Spinoza]]<ref>See for instance Antonio Damasio (2005) ''Looking for Spinoza''.</ref> and [[David Hume]]. More recent theories of emotions tend to be informed by advances in empirical research. Often theories are not mutually exclusive and many researchers incorporate multiple perspectives in their work.
===Somatic theories===
Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses rather than judgements are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories comes from William James in the 1880s. The theory lost favour in the 20th Century, but has regained popularity more recently thanks largely to theorists such as [[António Damásio]], [[Joseph E. LeDoux]] and [[Robert Zajonc]] who are able to appeal to neurological evidence.
====James-Lange theory====
[[William James]] in the article 'What is an Emotion?' (''Mind'', 9, 1884: 188-205) argued that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of bodily changes. These changes might be visceral, postural, or facially expressive. Danish psychologist [[Carl Lange]] also proposed a similar theory at around the same time and thus the resulting position is known as the [[James-Lange theory]]. This theory and its derivates state that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says 'the perception of bodily changes as they occur IS the emotion.' James further claims that 'we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and not that we cry, strike, or tremble, because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.'
This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state, a desired emotion is induced.<ref>See James Laird ''Feelings; The Perception of Self'' (Oxford: Oxford University press, 2007) for a review of hundreds of experiments confirming this.</ref> Such experiments also have therapeutic implications (e.g. in [[Laughter|laughter therapy]], [[dance therapy]]). The James-Lange theory is often misunderstood because it seems counter-intuitive. Most people believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions: i.e. "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I was scared." The James-Lange theory, conversely, asserts that ''first'' we react to a situation (running away and crying happen before the emotion), and ''then'' we interpret our actions into an emotional response. In this way, emotions serve to explain and organize our own actions to us.
===Cognitive theories===
There are a number of theories of emotions that argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgements, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. This, it is argued{{Who|date=July 2008}}, is necessary to capture the fact that emotions are about something or have [[intentionality]]. Such cognitive activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. An influential theory here is that of [[Richard Lazarus]] (1991). A prominent philosophical exponent is [[Robert C. Solomon]] (e.g. ''The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life'', 1993). The theory proposed by [[Nico Frijda]] where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example.
====Perceptual theory====
A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasises the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognised by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves ''perceive'' the meaningful content of the emotion as a result of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book ''Gut Reactions'' (2004) and psychologist James Laird's book ''Feelings: The Perception of Self'' (2007). Related views are also found in the work of [[Peter Goldie]] and [[Ronald de Sousa]].
====Affective Events Theory====
The [[Affective Events Theory]] is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts.) This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also emphasizes ''time'' in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes - a “series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme” (Weiss & Beal, 2005, p. 6). This theory has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, ''Reflections on Affective Events Theory'' published in ''Research on Emotion in Organizations'' in 2005.
====Cannon-Bard theory====
In the [[Cannon-Bard theory]], [[Walter Bradford Cannon]] argued against the dominance of the James-Lange theory regarding the physiological aspects of emotions in the second edition of ''Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage''. Where James argued that emotional behaviour often precedes or defines the emotion, Cannon and Bard argued that the emotion arises first and then stimulates typical behaviour.
====Two-factor theory====
Another cognitive theory is the [[Two factor theory of emotion|Singer-Schachter theory]]. This is based on experiments purportedly showing that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of adrenaline. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation displayed that emotion. Hence the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and whether participants received adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz (2004) ''Gut Reactions''.
====Component process model====
A recent version of the cognitive theory comes from [[Klaus Scherer]] which regards emotions more broadly as the synchronization of many different bodily and cognitive components. Emotions are identified with the overall process whereby low level cognitive appraisals, in particular the processing of relevance, trigger bodily reactions, behaviors, feelings, and actions.
==Disciplinary approaches==
Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. [[Human Science|Human sciences]] study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In [[psychiatry]], emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. [[Psychology]] examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In [[neuroscience]] sub-fields such as [[affective neuroscience]], scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In [[linguistics]], the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In [[education]], the role of emotions in relation to learning are examined.
[[Social sciences]] often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In [[sociology]], emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. In [[anthropology]], the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual anlyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities; some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities.
In [[economics]], the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In [[criminology]], a social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as [[anomie]] theory and studies of "toughness", aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. In [[law]], which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in [[Tort|tort law]] claims for compensation and in [[criminal law]] prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). In [[political science]], emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making.
In [[philosophy]], emotions are studied in sub-fields such as [[ethics]], the [[Aesthetics|philosophy of art]] (e.g., sensory-emotional values, and matters of taste and sentiment), and the [[philosophy of music]]. In [[history]], scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In [[literature]] and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In [[communication studies]], scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages.
Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in [[ethology]], a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.
===Evolutionary biology===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=July 2008}}
Perspectives on emotions from evolution theory were initiated in the late 19th century with [[Charles Darwin]]'s book ''The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals''.<ref>Darwin, Charles (1872). ''The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals''. Note: This book was originally published in 1872, but has been reprinted many times thereafter by different publishers</ref> Darwin's original thesis was that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have cross-culturally universal counterparts. Furthermore animals undergo emotions comparable to our own (see [[emotion in animals]]). Evidence of universality in the human case has been provided by [[Paul Ekman]]'s seminal research on facial expression. Other research in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see [[affect display]]). The increased potential in [[neuroimaging]] has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were made from this perspectives in the 1990s by, for example, [[Joseph E. LeDoux]] and [[António Damásio]].
American evolutionary biologist [[Robert Trivers]] argues that moral emotions are based on the principal of [[reciprocal altruism]]. The notion of [[group selection]] is of particular relevance. This theory posits the different emotions have different reciprocal effects. Sympathy prompts a person to offer the first favor, particularly to someone in need for whom the help would go the furthest. Anger protects a person against cheaters who accept a favor without reciprocating, by making him want to punish the ingrate or sever the relationship. Gratitude impels a beneficiary to reward those who helped him in the past. Finally, guilt prompts a cheater who is in danger of being found out, by making them want to repair the relationship by redressing the misdeed. As well, guilty feelings encourage a cheater who has been caught to advertise or promise that he will behave better in the future.
===Sociology===
{{main|Sociology of emotions}}
We try to regulate our emotions to fit in with the norms of the situation, based on many - sometimes conflicting - demands upon us which originate from various entities studied by sociology on a micro level -- such as social roles and 'feeling rules' the everyday social interactions and situations are shaped by -- and, on a macro level, by social institutions, discourses, ideologies etc. For example, (post-)modern marriage is, on one hand, based on the emotion of love and on the other hand the very emotion is to be worked on and regulated by it. The sociology of emotions also focuses on general [[attitude change]]s in a population. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism.
===Psychotherapy===
Depending on the particular school's general emphasis either on cognitive component of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of [[psychotherapy]] approach human emotions differently. While, for example, the school of [[Re-evaluation Counseling]] propose that distressing emotions are to be relieved by "discharging" them - hence crying, laughing, sweating, shaking, and trembling.<ref>[http://www.rc.org/theory/recovery.html Counseling recovery processes - RC website]</ref> Other more cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as [[Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy|rational emotive behavior therapy]]. Yet other approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary [[gestalt therapy]]<ref>[http://www.123webpages.co.uk/user/index.php?user=mgc&pn=10713 On Emotion - an article from Manchester Gestalt Centre website]</ref>).
===Computer science===
{{main|Affective computing}}
In the 2000s, in research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human [[Affect (psychology)|affect]] display and model emotions (Fellous, Armony & LeDoux, 2002). In computer science, [[affective computing]] is a branch of the study and development of [[artificial intelligence]] that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning [[Computer science|computer sciences]], [[psychology]], and [[cognitive science]].<ref name=TaoTan>{{cite conference |first=Jianhua |last=Tao |coauthors=Tieniu Tan |title=Affective Computing: A Review |booktitle=Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction |volume=[[Lecture Notes in Computer Science|LNCS]] 3784 |pages=981–995 |publisher=Springer |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/11573548 }}</ref> While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into [[Emotion#The_James-Lange_Theory|emotion]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=James|first=William|date=1884|title=What is Emotion|journal=Mind|volume=9|pages=188–205}} Cited by Tao and Tan.</ref> the more modern branch of computer science originated with [[Rosalind Picard]]'s 1995 paper<ref>[http://affect.media.mit.edu/pdfs/95.picard.pdf "Affective Computing"] MIT Technical Report #321 ([http://vismod.media.mit.edu/pub/tech-reports/TR-321-ABSTRACT.html Abstract]), 1995</ref> on affective computing.<ref>
{{cite web
|url= http://ls12-www.cs.tu-dortmund.de//~fink/lectures/SS06/human-robot-interaction/Emotion-RecognitionAndSimulation.pdf
|title= Recognition and Simulation of Emotions
|accessmonthday= May 13
|accessyear= 2008
|last= Kleine-Cosack
|first= Christian
|year= 2006
|month= October
|format= [[PDF]]
|quote= The introduction of emotion to computer science was done by Pickard (sic)
who created the field of affective computing.
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/love.html
|title= The Love Machine; Building computers that care.
|accessmonthday= May 13
|accessyear= 2008
|last= Diamond
|first= David
|year= 2003
|month= December
|publisher= Wired
|quote= Rosalind Picard, a genial MIT professor, is the field's godmother; her 1997 book, Affective Computing, triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users.
}}</ref>
Detecting emotional information begins with passive [[Sensor|sensors]] which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors.
==Notable theorists ==
<!-- Please do not expand this list without discussion first on the Talk Page. This should not be a long list of all scientists working on emotion; it should just include the most notable and most-cited scientists. Undiscussed additions will be removed. -->
In the late nineteenth century, the most influential theorists were [[William James]] (1842 – 1910) and [[Carl Lange]] (1834 - 1900). James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the [[James-Lange theory]], a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.
In the twentieth century, some of the most influential theorists on emotion who have now passed away were psychologists from the US. They include [[Magda B. Arnold]] (1903-2002), an American psychologist who developed the [[appraisal theory]] of emotions; [[Richard Lazarus]] (1922-2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; [[Robert Plutchik]] (1928-2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In addition, an American philosopher, [[Robert C. Solomon]] (1942 – 2007), contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as ''What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings'' (Oxford, 2003).
Influential theorists who are still active include psychologists, neurologists, and philosophers from Europe and North America, including:
*[[Lisa Feldman Barrett]] - Social psychologist specializing in affective science and human emotion
*[[António Damásio]] (1944- ) - Portuguese behavioral neurologist and neuroscientist who works in the US
*[[Paul Ekman]] (1934- ) - Psychologist specializing in study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions
*[[Barbara Fredrickson]] - Social psychologist who specializes in emotions and positive psychology.
*[[Nico Frijda]] (1927- ) - Dutch psychologist who specializes in human emotions, especially facial expressions
*[[Peter Goldie]] - British philosopher who specializes in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character
*[[Joseph E. LeDoux]] (1949- ) - American neuroscientist who studies the biological underpinnings of memory and emotion, especially the mechanisms of fear
<!-- Addition of the Portuguese professor Freitas-Magelhães without discussion on the talk page will be reverted as vandalism, this due to repeated addition of this name by a host of anonymous IP 195.xxxx editors. -->
*[[Jesse Prinz]] - American philosopher who specializes in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and consciousness
*[[Klaus Scherer]] (1943- ) - Swiss psychologist and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva; he specializes in the psychology of emotion
*[[Ronald de Sousa]] (1940- ) - English-Canadian philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotions, philosophy of mind and philosophy of biology.
*[[Robert Zajonc]] (1923- ) - Polish-American social psychologist who specializes in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation
==See also==
*[[Affect (psychology)]]
*[[Emotion in animals]]
*[[Emotions and culture]]
*[[Emotional expression]]
*[[Feeling]]
*[[Mood (psychology)]]
*[[Sociology of emotions]]
==References==
<references/>
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Cornelius, R. (1996). ''The science of emotion''. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
* Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2007).''The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face''. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press.
* Ekman, P. (1999). "[http://www.paulekman.com/pdfs/basic_emotions.pdf Basic Emotions]". In: T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.). ''Handbook of Cognition and Emotion''. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:.
* Frijda, N. H. (1986). ''The Emotions''. Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press. [http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521316006]
* LeDoux, J. E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. Chap. 15 in J E. LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.) ''Mind and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience''. New York: Cambridge.
* Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), ''Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion'' (pp. 3–33). New York: Academic.
* Scherer, K. (2005). What are emotions and how can they be measured? ''Social Science Information'' Vol. 44, No. 4: 695-729.
* Solomon, R. (1993). ''The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life''. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
{{refend}}
==External links==
* [http://www.cnx.org/content/m14358/latest CNX.ORG: The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts (free online book)]
* [http://emotion-research.net/ Humaine Emotion-Research.net: The Humaine Portal: Research on Emotions and Human-Machine Interaction]
* [http://homepages.feis.herts.ac.uk/~comqkd/aaai-social.html Kerstin Dautenhahn: Socially Intelligent Agents]
* [http://www.philosophyofmind.net PhilosophyofMind.net: Philosophy of Emotions portal]
* [http://www.affective-sciences.org/ Swiss Center for Affective Sciences]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/emotion/ The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Emotion]
* [http://emotion.nsma.arizona.edu/emotion.html University of Arizona: Salk Institute: Emotion Home Page]
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