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''''''अल्ब्रेश्ट ड्युएरेर''' [[डोइच भाषा]]: Albrecht Dürer''' (ˈalbʀɛçt ˈdyʀɐ) ([[मे २१]], [[१४७१]]
His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Renaissance in Northern Europe ever since.
== Early life (1471 - 1490) ==
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[[
Dürer was born on [[May 21]], [[1471]], third child and second son of his parents, who had between fourteen and eighteen children. His father was a successful [[goldsmith]], originally named Ajtósi, who in 1455 had moved to Nuremberg from [[Ajtós]], near [[Gyula (town)|Gyula]] in [[Hungary]]. The German name "Dürer" is derived from the Hungarian, "Ajtósi". Initially, it was "Thürer," meaning doormaker, which is "ajtós" in Hungarian (from "ajtó", meaning door). A door is featured in the [[coat-of-arms]] the family acquired. Albrecht Dürer the Elder married Barbara Holper, from a prosperous Nuremberg family, in 1467.
Dürer's godfather was [[Anton Koberger]], who left [[goldsmith]]ing to become a printer and publisher in the year of Dürer's birth. He quickly became the most successful publisher in Germany, eventually owning twenty-four [[printing-press]]es and having many offices in Germany and abroad. His most famous publication was the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]],'' published in 1493 in German and Latin editions. It contained an unprecedented 1,809 [[woodcut]] illustrations (with many repeated uses of the same block) by the [[Wolgemut]] workshop. Dürer may well have worked on some of these, as the work on the project began while he was with Wolgemut.<ref name="Bartrum">Giulia Bartrum, "Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy", British Museum Press, 2002, ISBN
It is fortunate Dürer left autobiographical writings and that he became very famous by his mid-twenties. Because of this, his life is well documented from a number of sources. After a few years of school, Dürer started to learn the basics of [[goldsmith]]ing and drawing from his father. Though his father wanted him to continue his training as a goldsmith, he showed such a precocious talent in drawing that he started as an apprentice to [[Michael Wolgemut]] at the age of fifteen in 1486. A self-portrait, a [[drawing]] in [[silverpoint]], is dated 1484 ([[Albertina, Vienna]]) “when I was a child”, as his later inscription says. Wolgemut was the leading artist in Nuremberg at the time, with a large workshop producing a variety of works of art, in particular woodcuts for books. Nuremberg was a prosperous city, a centre for publishing and many luxury trades. It had strong links with [[Italy]], especially [[Venice]], a relatively short distance across the [[Alps]].<ref name="Bartrum"/>
== Wanderjahre and marriage (1490-4) ==
After completing his term of apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking ''Wanderjahre'' — in effect [[gap year]]s — in which the apprentice learned skills from artists in other areas; Dürer was to spend about four years away. He left in 1490, possibly to work under [[Martin Schongauer]], a leading engraver of Northern Europe, but who died shortly before Dürer's arrival at [[Colmar]] in 1492. It is unclear where Dürer travelled in the intervening period, though it is likely that he went to [[Frankfurt]] and the [[Netherlands]]. In Colmar, Dürer was welcomed by Schongauer's brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul and the painter Ludwig. In 1493 Dürer went to Strassbourg, where he would have experienced the scultpure of [[Nikolaus Gerhaert]]. Dürer's first painted self-portrait (now in the [[Louvre]]) was painted at this time, probably to be sent back to his fiancé in Nuremberg.<ref name="Bartrum"/>
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Very soon after his return to Nuremberg, on [[July 7]], [[1494]], at the age of 23, Dürer was married to Agnes Frey († 1539) following an arrangement made during his absence. Agnes was the daughter of a prominent brass worker (and amateur harpist) in the city. However, no children resulted from the marriage. It is probable that Dürer's engraved copies after [[Andrea Mantegna|Mantegna]] were made at this time, before his trip to Italy.
== First journey to Italy (1494-5) ==
[[
Within three months Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps stimulated by an outbreak of [[Black Death|plague]] in Nuremberg. He made [[Watercolor painting|watercolour]] sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving ''Nemesis''. These are the first pure landscape studies known in Western art.<ref name="Bartrum"/>
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The evidence for this trip is not conclusive and although the theory is supported by Erwin Panofsky (Albrecht Dürer, 1943) and others, the visit has been disputed by other scholars, including Katherine Crawford Luber (Albrecht Dürer and the Venetian Renaissance, 2005).
== Return to Nuremberg (1495 - 1505) ==
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On his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Over the next five years his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Dürer lost both of his parents during the next decade: his father died in 1502 and his mother died in 1513.<ref name=Allen>Allen, L. Jessie. (1903) ''Albrecht Dürer'', Methuen & co.</ref> His best works in the first years of the workshop were his [[woodcut]] prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as ''The Mens' Bath-house'' (ca. 1496). These were larger than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition.
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His famous series of sixteen great designs for the ''Apocalypse<ref>[http://www.payer.de/christentum/apokalypse.htm Johannesapokalypse in klassischen Comics<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>'' are dated 1498. He made the first seven scenes of the ''Great Passion'' in the same year, and a little later, a series of eleven on the [[Holy Family]] and saints. Around 1503–1505 he produced the first seventeen of a set illustrating the ''[[Life of the Virgin]]'', which he did not finish for some years. Neither these, nor the ''Great Passion,'' were published as sets until several years later, but prints were sold individually in considerable numbers.<ref name="Bartrum"/>
[[
During the same period Dürer trained himself in the difficult art of using the [[Burin (tool)|burin]] to make [[engraving]]s. It is possible he had begun learning this skill during his early training with his father, as it was also an essential skill of the goldsmith. The first few were relatively unambitious, but by 1496 he was able to produce the masterpiece, the ''Prodigal Son,'' which [[Vasari]] singled out for praise some decades later, noting its Germanic quality. He was soon producing some spectacular and original images, notably ''Nemesis'' (1502), ''The Sea Monster'' (1498), and ''[[:Image:Dürer10.jpg|Saint Eustace]]'' (ca.1501), with a highly detailed landscape background and beautiful animals. He made a number of [[Madonna (art)|
[[
The Venetian artist [[Jacopo de' Barbari]], whom Dürer had met in Venice, visited Nuremberg in 1500, and Dürer said that he learned much about the new developments in [[perspective (graphical)|perspective]], [[anatomy]], and [[Body proportions|proportion]] from him. He was unwilling to explain everything he knew, so Dürer began his own studies, which would become a lifelong preoccupation. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, leading to the famous engraving of ''[[Adam and Eve]]'' (1504), which shows his subtlety while using the [[Burin (tool)|burin]] in the texturing of flesh surfaces.<ref name="Bartrum"/> This is the only existing engraving signed with his full name. At this time Dürer also made an engraving of [[Philosophy|Philosophia]] as mother of the [[liberal arts]] for the humanist [[Conrad Celtis]].
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Dürer made large numbers of preparatory drawings, especially for his paintings and engravings, and many survive, most famously the ''Praying Hands'' (1508 [[Albertina, Vienna]]), a study for an apostle in the Heller altarpiece. He also continued to make images in [[watercolour]] and [[bodycolour]] (usually combined), including a number of exquisite still lifes of meadow sections or animals, including his "[[Hare]]" (1502, [[Albertina, Vienna]]).
== Second journey to Italy (1505-07) ==
In Italy, he returned to painting, at first producing a series of works executed in [[tempera]] on [[linen]]. These include portraits and altarpieces, notably, the Paumgartner [[altarpiece]] and the ''[[Adoration of the Magi in Art|Adoration of the Magi]]''. In early 1506, he returned to Venice and stayed there until the spring of 1507.<ref name=Mueller /> By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of [[San Bartolomeo, Venice|San Bartolomeo]]. This was the altar-piece known as the ''Adoration of the Virgin'' or the ''Feast of Rose Garlands''. It includes portraits of members of Venice's German community, but shows a strong Italian influence. It was subsequently acquired by the Emperor [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II]] and taken to [[Prague]]. Other paintings Dürer produced in Venice include ''The Virgin and Child with the Goldfinch'', ''Christ disputing with the Doctors'' (supposedly produced in a mere five days), and a number of smaller works.
== Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507 - 1520) ==
[[
Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer was back in Nuremberg by mid-1507, and he remained in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with most of the major artists including [[Raphael]], [[Giovanni Bellini]] and—mainly through [[Lorenzo di Credi]]—[[Leonardo]].
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Other works from this period include the thirty-seven woodcut subjects of the Little Passion, published first in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Indeed, complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints, he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. However, in 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous [[engravings]]: ''The Knight, Death, and the Devil'' (1513, probably based on [[Desiderius Erasmus|Erasmus]]'s treatise 'Enichiridion militis Christiani'), ''[[St. Jerome in His Study (Dürer)|St. Jerome in his Study]]'', and the much-debated ''[[Melencolia I]]'' (both 1514).
[[
In 1515, he created his woodcut of the ''[[Dürer's Rhinoceros|Rhinoceros]]'' which had arrived in [[Lisbon]] from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. Despite being relatively inaccurate (the animal belonged to a now-extinct Indian species), the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century.<ref name="Bartrum"/> In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works, including portraits in [[tempera]] on [[linen]] in 1516.
=== Patronage of Maximilian I ===
In 1512 Dürer became patronised by [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]]. His commissions included ''[[The Triumphal Arch]]'', a vast work printed from 192 separate blocks, the symbolism of which is partly informed by Pirckheimer's translation of [[Horapollo]]'s ''Hieroglyphica''. The design program and explanations were devised by [[Johannes Stabius]], the archtectural design by the master builder and court-painter Jörg Kölderer and the woodcutting itself by Hieronymous Andreae, with Dürer as designer-in-chief. The Arch was followed by the Triumphal Procession, the program of which was worked out in 1512 by [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx_Treitzsaurwein Marx Treitz-Saurwein] and includes woodcuts by [[Albrecht Altdorfer]] and [[Hans Springinklee]], as well as Dürer.
Dürer worked in pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed Prayer-Book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in [[lithography]]. Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] and [[Hans Baldung]]. Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519.
== Journey to the Netherlands (1520-1521) ==
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Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on [[old master print|prints]] at this time. Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented.<ref>Landau & Parshall:350-54 and ''passim''</ref> While providing valuable documentary evidence, Dürer's Netherlandish diary also reveals that the trip was not a profitable one. For example, Dürer offered his last portrait of Maximilian to his daughter, [[Margaret of Habsburg (1480-1530)|Margaret of Austria]], but eventually traded the picture for some white cloth after Margaret disliked the portrait and declined to accept it. During this trip he also met [[Conrad Meit]], [[Bernard van Orley]], [[Jean Prevost]], [[Gerard Horenbout]], [[Jean Mone]], [[Joachim Patinir]] & [[Tommaso Vincidor]], though he did not, it seems, meet [[Quentin Matsys]].<ref>Panofsky:209</ref>
At the request of [[Christian II of Denmark]] Dürer went to [[Brussels]] to make the King's portrait. There he saw "the things which have been sent to the king from the golden land"
Having secured his pension, Dürer finally returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness—perhaps [[malaria]]<ref>Panofsky:</ref> —which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work.<ref name="Bartrum"/>
<br clear=left />
== Final years in Nuremberg (1521-28) ==
[[
On his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a [[Crucifixion]] scene and a [[Sacra conversazione|Sacra Conversazione]], though neither was completed.<ref>Panofsky:223</ref> This may have been in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on [[geometry]] and [[linear perspective|perspective]], the [[body proportions|proportions]] of men and horses, and [[fortification]].
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Dürer died in Nuremberg at the age of 56, leaving an estate valued at 6,874 florins—a considerable sum. His large house (purchased in 1509 from the heirs of the astronomer [[Bernhard Walther]]), where his workshop was located and where his widow lived until her death in 1537, remains a prominent Nuremberg landmark. <ref name="Bartrum"/> It is now a museum.
=== Dürer and the Reformation ===
Although Dürer was a [[Roman Catholic]], it is clear from his writings that he was highly sympathetic to [[Martin Luther]]. Dürer wrote of his desire to draw Luther in his diary in 1520: "And God help me that I may go to Dr. Martin Luther; thus I intend to make a portrait of him with great care and engrave him on a copper plate to create a lasting memorial of the Christian man who helped me overcome so many difficulties." In a letter to [[Nicholas Kratzer]] in 1524 Dürer wrote "because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics." Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to [[Johann Tscherte]] in 1530: "I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory...but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse." Dürer may even have contributed to the [[Nuremberg]] City Council mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts various reformers, such as [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwingli]], [[Andreas Karlstadt]], [[Philipp Melanchthon|Melanchthon]], [[Desiderius Erasmus|Erasmus]] and [[Cornelius Grapheus]] from whom Dürer received Luther's 'Babylonian Captivity' in 1520.<ref>Price:225-248</ref> In spite of all these reasons to believe Dürer was sympathetic to Lutheranism, at least in its early manifestations, he never in any way abandoned the Catholic Church.
Dürer's later works have also been claimed to show [[Protestant]] sympathies. For example, his engraving of ''[[The Last Supper]]'' of 1523 has often been understood to have an [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] theme, focussing as it does on Christ espousing the [[Gospel]], as well the inclusion of the [[Eucharist]]ic cup, an expression of Protestant [[Utraquist|utraquism]],<ref>Strauss, 1981</ref> although this interpretation has been questioned.<ref>Price:254</ref> The delaying of the engraving of [[Philip the Apostle|St Philip]], completed in 1523 but not distributed until 1526, may have been due to Dürer's uneasiness with images of Saints; even if Dürer was not an [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]], in his last years he evaluated and questioned the role of art in religion.<ref>Harbison</ref>
== Legacy and influence ==
[[
Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in [[printmaking]], the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominately in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as [[Raphael]], [[Titian]], and [[Parmigianino]], who entered into collaborations with [[printmaker]]s to distribute their work beyond their local region.
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His original works are now totally priceless, so much so that even his 19th Century Albertina prints & engravings are changing hands at leading galleries & auctions houses for many tens of thousands of dollars.
== Dürer's theoretical works ==
In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the [[German language]], rather than [[Latin]], Dürer used graphic expressions based on a [[vernacular]], craftsmen's language, e.g. 'snail-line' ('Schneckenlinie') for a spiral, thus contributing to the expansion in German prose which [[Martin Luther]] had begun with his translation of the [[Luther Bible|Bible]].<ref name="Panofsky">Erwin Panofsky, "The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer", Princeton, 1945, ISBN
=== The Four Books on Measurement ===
Dürer's work on [[geometry]] is called the 'Four Books on Measurement' ('Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt'). The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include [[helices]], [[Conchoid (mathematics)|conchoids]] and [[epicycloid]]s. He also draws on [[Apollonius]], and [[Johannes Werner]]'s 'Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis' of 1522. The second book moves onto two dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular [[polygons]]. Here Dürer favours the methods of [[Ptolemy]] over [[Euclid]]. The third book applies these principles of geometry to [[architecture]], [[engineering]] and [[typography]]. In [[architecture]] Dürer cites [[Vitruvius]] but elaborates his own classical designs and [[classical orders|columns]]. In [[typography]], Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the [[Latin alphabet]], relying on [[History of western typography#
=== The Four Books on Human Proportion ===
Dürer's work on [[body proportions|human proportions]] is called the 'Four Books on Human Proportion' ('Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion) of 1528. The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both [[Vitruvius]] and empirical observations of, "two to three hundred living persons,"<ref name="Panofsky"/> in his own words. The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an [[Leone Battista Alberti|Albertian]] system, which Dürer probably learnt from [[Francesco di Giorgio]]'s 'De harmonica mundi totius' of 1525. In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of [[convex lens|convex]] and [[concave mirror]]s; here Dürer also deals with human [[physiognomy]]. The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement.
Appended to the third book, however, is a self contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ('Nutz'), naïve approval ('Wohlgefallen') and the happy medium ('Mittelmass'). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or [[artistic inspiration|inspired]] to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'.<ref name="Panofsky"/> In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that "one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole year."<ref>Panofsky:283</ref>
== See also ==
* [[:Category:Dürer paintings and prints|Dürer paintings and prints]]
== References ==
<!-- ----------------------------------------------------------
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== Books/sources ==
* Giulia Bartrum (2002), ''Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy'', British Museum Press. ISBN
* Wilhelm Kurth (Editor) (2000), ''The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer'', Dover Publications. ISBN
* David Landau & Peter Parshall, ''The Renaissance Print'', Yale, 1996, ISBN
* [[Erwin Panofsky]](1945), "The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer", Princeton, ISBN
* Walter L. Strauss (Editor) (1973), ''The Complete Engravings, Etchings and Drypoints of Albrecht Durer'', Dover Publications. ISBN
* Craig Harbison, "Dürer and the Reformation: The Problem of the Re-dating of the ''St. Philip'' Engraving", in ''The Art Bulletin'', Vol. 58, No. 3, 368-373. Sep., 1976.
* David Hotchkiss Price, ''Albrecht Dürer's Renaissance: Humanism, Reformation and the Art of Faith'', Michigan, 2003.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Albrecht Dürer}}
* [http://www.bodkinprints.co.uk/links.php Links to online museum images of all of Dürer's prints
* [http://www.all-art.org/durer/durer1-1.html Albrecht Durer in the "History of Art"]
* http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/durer/
* [http://www.aiwaz.net/Albrecht-DÜRER/c5 Alternative Albrecht Durer]
* [http://www.museen-sh.de/ml/digicult.php?digiID=200.6885331&s=2 Works by Albrecht Dürer] at Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein
* [http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/search.aspx?advanced=colProProductionMakers%3a%22Durer%2c+Albrecht%22+colCollectionGroup%3aCH Works by Albrecht Dürer at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/durer_home.html Albrecht Dürer: ''Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion'' (Nuremberg, 1528)]. Selected pages scanned from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine.
* [http://www.payer.de/christentum/apokalypse.htm]
* {{gutenberg author | id=Albrecht+Dürer | name=Albrecht Dürer}}
* [http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/duruwm/index.html ''De Symmetria... and Underweysung der Messung''] 1538, from [[Rare Book Room]].
* {{MacTutor Biography | id=Durer}}
* [http://kubiss.de/kulturreferat/duerer/index.htm www.duerer.nuernberg.de]
* [http://www.albrecht-durer.org www.albrecht-durer.org]
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