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Anger is viewed as a natural and healthy response that has [[evolution|evolved]] to enable us to deal with threats.<ref name="OxfDic"> Michael Kent, ''Anger'', The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-262845-3</ref> Three types of anger are recognized by psychologists: The first form of anger, named "hasty and sudden anger" by [[Joseph Butler]], an 18th century English bishop, is connected to the impulse for self-preservation. It is shared between humans and animals and occurs when tormented or trapped. The second type of anger is named "settled and deliberate" anger and is a reaction to perceived ''deliberate'' harm or unfair treatment by others. These two forms of anger are ''episodic''. The third type of anger is however ''dispositional'' and is related more to character traits than to instincts or cognitions. Irritability, sullenness and churlishness postures are examples of the last form of anger.<ref name="EoE"> Paul M. Hughes, ''Anger'', Encyclopedia of Ethics, Vol I, Second Edition, Rutledge Press </ref>
 
Anger can potentially mobilize psychological resources and boost determination toward correction of wrong behaviors, promotion of [[social justice]], communication of negative sentiment and redress of grievances. It can also facilitate patience. On the other hand, anger can be destructive when it does not find its appropriate outlet in expression. Anger, in its strong form, impairs one's ability to process information and to exert [[cognitive control]] over his behavior. An angry person may lose his/her objectivity, empathy, prudence or thoughtfulness and may cause harm to others.<ref name="EncPsy"/> There is a sharp distinction between anger and aggression (verbal or physical, direct or indirect) even though they mutually influence each other. While anger can activate aggression or increase its probability or intensity, it is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for aggression.<ref name="EncPsy"/>
 
=== Physiology ===
 
[[किपा:Anger during a protest by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|200px|Two people arguing during a political protest. Both protesters became angry and aggressive, as evidenced by their body language and facial expressions. To hear the angry exchange, listen to the audio below.]] [[किपा:Ds300004.ogg|thumb|right|'''Audio file''' of an angry exchange at a protest.]]
 
The external expression of anger can be found in [[facial expression]]s, [[body language]], physiological responses, and at times in public acts of aggression.<ref name="OxfDic"/> The facial expression and body language are as follows:<ref name="EncPsy"/>
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Physiological responses to anger include an increase in the heart rate, preparing the person to move, and increase of the [[blood flow]] to the hands, preparing them to strike. Perspiration increases (particularly when the anger is intense).<ref> [[Paul Ekman]], ''Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication'', Holt Paperbacks, ISBN 0-8050-7516-X, 2004, p.63</ref> A common metaphor for the physiological aspect of anger is that of a hot fluid in a container.<ref name="EncPsy"/> According to Novaco, "Autonomic arousal is primarily engaged through adrenomedullary and adrenocortical hormonal activity. The secretion by the andrenal medulla of the catecholamines, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, and by the andrenal cortex of glucocorticoids provides a [[Sympathetic nervous system|sympathetic system]] effect that mobilizes the body for immediate action (e.g. the release of glucose, stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen). In anger, the catecholamine activation is more strongly norepinephrine than epinephrine (the reverse being the case for fear). The adrenocortical effects, which have longer duration than the adrenomedullary ones, are modiated by secretions of the [[pituitary gland]], which also influences testosterone levels. The pituitary-adrenocortical and pituitary-gonadal systems are thought to affect readiness or potentiation for anger responding."<ref name="EncPsy"/>
 
Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the [[brain]]. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the [[amygdala]] in its travel from the [[Sense|sensory organs]] along certain [[neural pathway]]s towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories however occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex.<ref name="Britannica11"/> Based on some [[Statistics|statistical analysis]], some scholars have suggested that the tendency for anger may be genetic. Distinguishing between genetic and [[environmental factor]]s however requires further research and actual measurement of specific genes and environments.<ref> Xiaoling Wang, Ranak Trivedi, Frank Treiber, and Harold Snieder, ''Genetic and Environmental Influences on Anger Expression, John Henryism, and Stressful Life Events: The Georgia Cardiovascular Twin Study'', Psychosomatic Medicine 67:16–23 (2005)</ref><ref>[http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=81 Barry Starr], [[The Tech Museum of Innovation]]</ref>
[[किपा:FLAXMAN John The Fury Of Athamas.jpg|thumb|left|200px| ''The Fury of [[Athamas]]'' by [[John Flaxman]] (1755-1826).]]
 
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<blockquote>The disciplined Roman army regularly defeats the fury of the Germans.... In sporting contests, it is a mistake to become angry ..., and in response to [[personal injury]], the only relief for great misfortunes is to bear them and submit to their coercion... If the misfortune is unbearable, then suicide should be preferred to rage.<ref name="AngerTheory"/></blockquote>
 
[[Aristotle]] on the other hand, ascribed some value to anger that has arisen from perceived injustice because it is useful for preventing injustice.<ref name="AngerTheory"/><ref> According to Aristotle: "The person who is angry at the right things and toward the right people, and also in the right way, at the right time and for the right length of time is morally praiseworthy." cf. Paul M. Hughes, ''Anger'', Encyclopedia of Ethics, Vol I, Second Edition, Rutledge Press </ref> Furthermore, the opposite of anger is a kind of insensibility, Aristotle stated.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> The difference in people's temperaments was generally viewed as a result the different mix of qualities or humors people contained. [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] held that "red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors."<ref name="AngerTheory"/> Ancient philosophers rarely refer to women’s anger at all, according to Simon Kemp and K. T. Strongman perhaps because their works were not intended for women. Some of them that discuss it, such as Seneca, considered women to be more prone to anger than men.<ref name="AngerTheory"/>
 
=== Medieval era ===
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[[किपा:Boschsevendeadlysins.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''[[The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things]]'', by [[Hieronymus Bosch]] (1485). "Anger" is depicted at the bottom in a series of circular images. Below the image is the [[Latin]] inscription ''Cave Cave Deus Videt'' ("Beware, Beware, God is Watching")]]
 
[[History of Christianity|Medieval Christianity]] vigorously rejected anger as one of the seven cardinal, or [[Seven Deadly Sins|deadly sins]] although some Christian writers at times regarded the anger caused from injustice as having some value.<ref name="Ethics"/><ref name="AngerTheory"> Simon Kemp, K.T. Strongman, ''Anger theory and management: A historical analysis'', The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 108, No. 3. (Autumn, 1995), pp. 397-417 </ref> [[Basil of Caesarea|Saint Basil]] viewed anger as a "reprehensible temporary madness."<ref name="Ethics"/> Joseph F. Delany in the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] (1914) defines anger as "the desire of vengeance" and states that a reasonable vengeance and passion is ethical and praiseworthy. Vengeance is sinful when it exceeds its limits in which case it becomes opposed to justice and charity. For example, "vengeance upon one who has not deserved it, or to a greater extent than it has been deserved, or in conflict with the dispositions of law, or from an improper motive" are all sinful. An unduly vehement vengeance is considered a [[venial sin]] unless it seriously goes counter to the love of God or of one's neighbor.<ref>{{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Anger|Anger]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}</ref>
 
In [[Hinduism]], anger is equated with sorrow as a form of unrequited desire. The objects of anger are perceived as a hindrance to the gratification of the desires of the angry person.<ref>[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part22/chap11.htm Anger, (HinduDharma: Dharmas Common To All)], Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham </ref> Alternatively if one thinks one is superior, the result is grief. Anger is considered to be packed with more evil power than desire.<ref>[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2004/7-9/40-49_anger.shtml Anger Management: How to Tame our Deadliest Emotion], by Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami </ref>
 
The Qur'an, the central [[religious text]] of [[Islam]], attributes anger to Prophets and believers and Muhammad's enemies. It mentions the anger of [[Moses]] against his people for worshiping a [[golden calf]]; the anger of [[Jonah]] at God in a moment and his eventual realization of his error and his repentance; God's removal of anger from the hearts of believers and making them merciful after the fighting against Muhammad's enemies is over.<ref> Examples include: Moses's anger: Quran 7:150, 154; 20:86; Jonah's anger: Quran 21:87-8; and Believer's anger: Qur'an 9:15
</ref><ref name="AngerQ"/>. In general suppression of anger is deemed a praiseworthy quality and [[Muhammad]] is attributed to have said, "power resides not in being able to strike another, but in being able to keep the self under control when anger arises."<ref>see for example Quran 3:134; 42:37; [[Sahih Bukhari|Sahih al-Bukhari]], vol. 8, bk. 73, no. 135.</ref><ref name="AngerQ"> Bashir, Shahzad. ''Anger'', [[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an]], Brill, 2007.</ref><ref> Mohammed Abu-Nimer, ''Non-Violence, Peacebuilding, Conflict Resolution and Human Rights in Islam:A Framework for Nonviolence and Peacebuilding in Islam'', Journal of Law and Religion, Vol. 15, No. 1/2. (2000 - 2001), pp. 217-265.</ref>
 
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=== Ancient philosophers ===
[[Seneca the younger|Seneca]] addresses the question of mastering anger in three parts: 1. how to avoid becoming angry in the first place 2. how to cease being angry and 3. how to deal with anger in others.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> Seneca suggests, in order to avoid becoming angry in the first place, that the many faults of anger should be repeatedly remembered. One should avoid being too busy or deal with anger-provoking people. Unnecessary hunger or thirst should be avoided and soothing music be listened to.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> To cease being angry, Seneca suggests "one to check speech and impulses and be aware of particular sources of personal irritation. In dealing with other people, one should not be too inquisitive: It is not always soothing to hear and see everything. When someone appears to slight you, you should be at first reluctant to believe this, and should wait to hear the full story. You should also put yourself in the place of the other person, trying to understand his motives and any extenuating factors, such as age or illness."<ref name="AngerTheory"/> Seneca further advises daily self-inquisition about one's [[Addiction|bad habit]].<ref name="AngerTheory"/>. To deal with anger in others, Seneca suggests that the best reaction is to simply keep calm. A certain kind of deception, Seneca says, is necessary in dealing with angry people.<ref name="AngerTheory"/>
 
[[Galen]] repeats Seneca's points but adds a new one: finding a guide and teacher can help the person in controlling their passions. [[Galen]] also gives some hints for finding a good teacher.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> Both Seneca and Galen (and later philosophers) agree that the process of controlling anger should start in childhood on grounds of malleability. Seneca warns that this education should not blunt the spirit of the children nor should they be humiliated or treated severely. At the same time, they should not be pampered. Children, Seneca says, should learn not to beat their playmates and not to become angry with them. Seneca also advises that children's requests should not be granted when they are angry.<ref name="AngerTheory"/>
 
=== Middle ages ===
[[Maimonides]] considered being given to uncontrollable passions as a kind of illness. Like Galen, Maimonides suggested seeking out a philosopher for curing this illness just as one seeks out a physician for curing bodily illnesses. [[Roger Bacon]] elaborates Seneca's advices. Many medieval writers discuss at length the evils of anger and the virtues of temperance. John Mirk asks men to "consider how angels flee before them and fiends run toward him to burn him with hellfire."<ref name="AngerTheory"/> In ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) modified the theory of [[temperament]]s and argued that anger heralded the transition of [[melancholia]] to [[mania]], and explained that [[humidity]] inside the head can contribute to such [[mood disorder]]s.<ref>{{citation |first=Amber |last=Haque |year=2004 |title=Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=357–377 [366] |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z}}</ref>
 
On the other hand, [[Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi]] classified anger (along with [[aggression]]) as a type of [[neurosis]],<ref>{{citation |first=Amber |last=Haque |year=2004 |title=Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=357–377 [362] |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z}}</ref> while [[al-Ghazali]] (Algazel) argued that anger takes form in [[Rage (emotion)|rage]], indignation and [[revenge]], and that "the powers of the [[soul]] become balanced if it keeps anger under control."<ref>{{citation |first=Amber |last=Haque |year=2004 |title=Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=357–377 [366–8] |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z}}</ref>
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==== Suppression ====
While the early philosophers were not concerned with possible harmful effects of the suppression of anger, modern psychologists point out that suppression of anger may have harmful effects. The suppressed anger may find another outlet, such as a physical symptom, or become more extreme.<ref name="AngerTheory"/><ref> "Anger." Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2nd ed. [[Thomson Gale|Gale Group]], 2001.</ref> John W. Fiero cites [[Los Angeles riots of 1992]] as an example of sudden, explosive release of suppressed anger. The anger was then displaced as violence against those who had nothing to do with the matter. Another example of widespread deflection of anger from its actual cause toward a scapegoat, Fiero says, was the blaming of Jews for the economic ills of Germany by the [[Nazi]]s.<ref name="Ethics"/>
 
== As a strategy ==
As with any emotion, the [[Affect display|display]] of anger can be feigned or exaggerated. Studies by Hochschild and Sutton have shown that the show of anger is likely to be an effective manipulation strategy in order to change and design attitudes. Anger is a distinct strategy of social influence and its use (i.e. belligerent behaviors) as a goal achievement mechanism proves to be a successful strategy.<ref name="Sutton1">Sutton, R. I. ''Maintaining norms about expressed emotions: The case of bill collectors'', Administrative Science Quarterly, 1991, 36:245-268 </ref><ref name="Hochschild1"> Hochschild, AR, ''The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling'', [[University of California Press]], 1983 </ref>
 
Tiedens, known for her studies of anger, claimed that expression of feelings would cause a powerful influence not only on the [[perception]] of the expresser but also on his [[power position]] in the [[society]]. She studied the [[correlation]] between anger expression and social influence [[perception]]. Previous researchers, such as Keating, 1985 have found that people with angry face expression were perceived as powerful and as in a high [[social position]].<ref name="Tiendis 2001">Tiedens LZ, ''Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral'', Link:
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11195894&dopt=Citation], Journal of Personality & [[Social psychology|Social Psychology]], 2001 Jan; 80(1):86-94.</ref> Similarly, Tiedens et al. have revealed that people who compared scenarios involving an angry and a sad, attributed a higher [[social status]] to the angry character.<ref name="Tiendis et al.,2000"/> Tiedens examined in her study whether anger expression promotes status attribution. In other words, whether anger contributes to perceptions or legitimization of others’ behaviors. Her findings clearly indicated that participants who were exposed to either an angry or a sad person were inclined to express support for the angry person rather than for a sad one. In addition, it was found that a reason for that decision originates from the fact that the person expressing anger was perceived as an ability owner, and was attributed a certain [[social status]] accordingly.<ref name="Tiendis 2001"/>
 
Showing [[Emotion in negotiation|anger during a negotiation]] may increase the ability of the anger expresser to succeed in [[negotiation]]. A study by Tiedens et al. indicated that the anger expressers were perceived as stubborn, dominant and powerful. In addition, it was found that people were inclined to easily give up to those who were perceived by them as a powerful and stubborn, rather than soft and submissive.<ref name="Tiendis et al.,2000"> Tiedens, Ellsworth & Mesquita, [http://psp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/5/560 Sentimental Stereotypes: Emotional Expectations for High-and Low-Status Group Members], 2000</ref> Based on these findings Sinaceur and Tiedens have found that people conceded more to the angry side rather than for the non-angry one.<ref>M Sinaceur, LZ Tiedens, Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2006</ref>
 
A question raised by Van Kleef et al. based on these findings was whether expression of [[emotion]] influences others, since it is known that people use emotional information to conclude about others’ limits and match their demands in [[negotiation]] accordingly. Van Kleef et al. wanted to explore whether people give up more easily to an angry opponent or to a happy opponent. Findings revealed that participants tended to be more flexible toward an angry opponent compared with a happy opponent. These results strengthen the argument that participants analyze the opponent’s emotion in order to conclude about their limits and carry out their decisions accordingly.<ref>Van Kleef, De Dreu and Manstead, ''The Interpersonal Effects of Anger and Happiness in Negotiations'', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2004, Vol. 86, No. 1, 57–76</ref>
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* [http://www.apa.org/topics/controlanger.html Controlling Anger -- Before It Controls You]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11195894&dopt=Citation Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral]
* [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=Get+mad+and+get+more+than+even%3A+The+benefits+of+anger+expressions&btnG=Search Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations]
* [http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001520967 Managing emotions in the workplace]
 
== लिधंसा ==
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