देवनागरी लिपि: Difference between revisions

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The transliteration used in this article follows the popular [[IAST]] conventions. The [[ITRANS]] [http://www.aczoom.com/itrans/#itransencoding] is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī into [[ASCII]] that is widely used on [[Usenet]]. In ITRANS, the word ''Devanāgarī'' is written as "devanaagarii".
 
== देवनागरीया चिं ==
All the vowels in Devanāgarī are attached to the top or bottom of the consonant or to an <aa> vowel sign attached to the right of the consonant, with the exception of the <i> vowel sign, which is attached on the left. In the Devanāgarī vowel table below, the "Letter" column contains the symbol used when a vowel occurs without a consonant, the "Vowel sign with <p>" column contains the symbol used when a vowel is attached to a consonant, shown with the <p> letter as an example, the "Unicode name" column contains the name given in the [[Unicode]] specification for the vowel, and the "IPA" column contains the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] character(s) corresponding to the Hindi pronunciation of the Devanāgarī character.
 
=== माआखः ===
The vowels of the Devanāgarī script with their word-initial Devanāgarī symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant प् (/p/), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and of /p/+vowel) in [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), equivalent in [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]] (IAST) and [[Indian languages transliteration]] (ITRANS) and (approximate) equivalents in Standard English are listed below:
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="center"
| '''Independent Vowel'''||'''Diacritical mark with “प्”'''||'''Pronunciation'''||'''Pronunciation with /p/'''||[[IAST]] equiv.'''||'''[[ITRANS]] equiv.||'''English eqivalent'''
|-align="center"
| '''अ'''||'''प'''||{{IPA|/ə/}} or {{IPA|/ä/}}||{{IPA|/pə/}} or {{IPA|/pä/}}||a||a||short [[Schwa]]: as the ''a'' in '''a'''bove or '''a'''go
|-align="center"
| '''आ'''||'''पा'''||{{IPA|/äː/}}||{{IPA|/päː/}}||ā||A||long [[open central unrounded vowel]]: as the ''a'' in f'''a'''ther
|-align="center"
| '''इ'''||'''पि'''||{{IPA|/i/}}||{{IPA|/pi/}}||i||i||short [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in b'''i'''t
|-align="center"
| '''ई'''||'''पी'''||{{IPA|/iː/}}||{{IPA|/piː/}}||ī||I||long [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in mach'''i'''ne
|-align="center"
| '''उ'''||'''पु'''||{{IPA|/u/}}||{{IPA|/pu/}}||u||u||short [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''u'' in p'''u'''t
|-align="center"
| '''ऊ'''||'''पू'''||{{IPA|/uː/}}||{{IPA|/puː/}}||ū||U|| long [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''oo'' in sch'''oo'''l
|-align="center"
| '''ए'''||'''पे'''||{{IPA|/eː/}}||{{IPA|/peː/}}||e||e|| long [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]: as ''a'' in g'''a'''me (not a diphthong), or ''é'' in caf'''é'''
|-align="center"
| '''ऐ'''||'''पै'''||{{IPA|/əi/ ''or'' /ai/}}||{{IPA|/pəi/ ''or'' /pai/}}||ai||ai|| a long [[diphthong]]: approx. as ''ei'' in h'''ei'''ght
|-align="center"
| '''ओ'''||'''पो'''||{{IPA|/οː/}}||{{IPA|/poː/}}||o||o|| long [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]: as ''o'' in t'''o'''ne (not a diphthong)
|-align="center"
| '''औ'''||'''पौ'''||{{IPA|/əu/ ''or'' /au/}}||{{IPA|/pəu/ ''or'' /pau/}}||au||au|| a long [[diphthong]]: approx. as ''ou'' in h'''ou'''se
|-align="center"
| '''ऋ'''||'''पृ'''||{{IPA|/r̩/}}||{{IPA|/pr̩/}}||{{Unicode|ṛ}}||R|| short syllabic vowel-like [[Alveolar trill]] :
|-align="center"
| '''ॠ'''||'''पॄ'''||{{IPA|/r̩ː/}}||{{IPA|/pr̩ː/}}||{{Unicode|ṝ}}||RR|| long syllabic vowel-like [[Alveolar trill]]: a longer version of {{IPA|/r̩/}}
|-align="center"
| '''ऌ''' ||'''पॢ'''||{{IPA|/l̩/}}||{{IPA|/pl̩/}}||{{Unicode|ḷ}}||LR|| short syllabic vowel-like [[Alveolar lateral approximant]]: approx. as hand'''l'''e
|-align="center"
| '''ॡ''' ||'''पॣ'''||{{IPA|/l̩ː/}}||{{IPA|/pl̩ː/}}||{{Unicode|ḹ}}||LRR|| long syllabic vowel-like [[Alveolar lateral approximant]]: a longer version of {{IPA|/l̩/}}
|-
|}
 
Additional points:
* The vowel {{IPA|/äː/}} in Sanskrit is more central and less back than the closest English equivalent, {{IPA|/ɑː/}}. The [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ə/}}) is always short in Sanskrit.
* All vowels in Hindi, short or long, can be nasalized. All vowels can have acute, grave or circumflex pitch accent (in Vedic Sanskrit).
* In Hindi, ऋ is pronounced as {{IPA|/ri/}}. The last three vowels in the table above do not occur in Hindi at all.
* Note that the ancient Sanskrit grammarians have classified the vowel system as velars, retroflexes, palatals and plosives rather than as back, central and mid vowels. Hence {{Unicode|ए}} and {{Unicode|ओ}} are classified respectively as palato-velar (a+i) labio-velar (a+u) vowels respectively. But the grammarians have classified them as diphthongs and in prosody, each is given two ''mātrās''. This does not necessarily mean that they are proper diphthongs, but neither excludes the possibility that they could have been proper diphthongs at a very ancient stage. These vowels ''are'' pronounced as long {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} respectively by most learned Sanskrit Brahmins and priests of today. Other than the "four" diphthongs, Sanskrit usually disallows any other diphthongs—vowels in succession, if occur, are converted to semivowels according to predetermined rules.
* In Sanskrit and in some other dialects of Hindi (as well as in a few words in Standard Hindi), the vowel {{Unicode|ऐ}} is pronounced as a diphthong {{IPA|/əi/}} or {{IPA|/ai/}} rather than {{IPA|/e:/}}. Similarly, the vowel {{Unicode|औ}} is pronounced in some words as the diphthong {{IPA|/əu/}} or {{IPA|/au/}} rather than {{IPA|/ɔ:/}}. Other than these, Hindi does not have true diphthongs—two vowels might occur sequentially but then they are pronounced as two syllables (a glide might come in between while speaking). Otherwise in Standard Hindi, {{Unicode|ऐ}} (ai) is long [[near-open front unrounded vowel]]: {{IPA|/æ/}} as ''a'' in c'''a'''t; {{Unicode|औ}} (au) is long [[open-mid back rounded vowel]]: {{IPA|/ɔː/}} as ''au'' in c'''au'''ght.
* The short [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ɛ/}}: as ''e'' in g'''e'''t), does not have any symbol or diacritic in devanagari script. It occurs only as an allophonic variant of [[schwa]] (in place word-middle a, determined only by convention) in certain words in the Standard khariboli dialect of Hindi. E.g., the orthography dictates that {{Unicode|रहना}} must be pronounced as {{IPA|/rəhənä:/}}, but it is actually pronounced as {{IPA|/rɛhnä/}}. It also occurs in loanwords from English, where it might be accorded a new vowel symbol of {{Unicode|ऍ }}(''chandra'': {{Unicode|पॅ}}). The short open-mid back rounded vowel ({{IPA|/ɔ/}}), does not exist in Hindi at all, other than for English loanwords. In orthography, a new symbol has been invented for it: {{Unicode|ऑ (पॉ)}}.
* Unicode transliteration scheme differs for some characters from [[IAST]] scheme. The differences are: ā→aa, ī→ii, ū→uu, {{Unicode|ṛ}}→rr, {{Unicode|ḹ}}→ll.
 
=== बाआखः ===
The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish/Italian. The parentheses give the corresponding transliteration (of the consonant alone) in [[IAST]] scheme—the most popular one. Each consonant shown below is by default followed by the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ə/}}), and is given in the table in this form.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!align="center" colspan="6"|'''Plosives'''
|-
!
![[Unaspirated]]<br />[[Voiceless]]
![[Aspirated]]<br />[[Voiceless]]
![[Unaspirated]]<br />[[Voiced]]
![[Aspirated]]<br />[[Voiced]]
![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|-align="center"
|[[Velar]]
|[[क]] (k)<br />{{IPA|/kə/}}; English: s'''k'''ip
|ख (kh)<br />{{IPA|/kʰə/}}; English: '''c'''at
|ग (g)<br />{{IPA|/gə/}}; English: '''g'''ame
|घ (gh)<br />{{IPA|/gʱə/}}; English: e'''gg h'''ead
|ङ ({{Unicode|ṅ}})<br />{{IPA|/ŋə/}}; English: ri'''ng'''
|-align="center"
|[[Palatal]]
|च (c)<br />{{IPA|/cə/}}; ≈English: '''ch'''at
|छ (ch)<br />{{IPA|/cʰə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/c/}}
|ज (j)<br />{{IPA|/ɟə/}}; ≈English: '''j'''am
|झ (jh)<br />{{IPA|/ɟʱə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ɟ/}}
|ञ (ñ)<br />{{IPA|/ɲə/}}; ≈English: fi'''n'''ch
|-align="center"
|[[Retroflex]]
|ट ({{Unicode|ṭ}}) <br />{{IPA|/ʈə/}}; American Eng: hur'''t'''ing
|ठ ({{Unicode|ṭh}}) <br />{{IPA|/ʈʰə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ʈ/}}
|ड ({{Unicode|ḍ}}) <br />{{IPA|/ɖə/}}; American Eng: mur'''d'''er
|ढ ({{Unicode|ḍh}}) <br />{{IPA|/ɖʱə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ɖ/}}
|ण ({{Unicode|ṇ}}) <br />{{IPA|/ɳə/}}; No English equivalent
|-align="center"
|Apico-[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
|त (t)<br />{{IPA|/t̪ə/}}; Spanish: '''t'''oma'''t'''e
|थ (th)<br />{{IPA|/t̪ʰə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/t̪/}}
|द (d)<br />{{IPA|/d̪ə/}}; Spanish: '''d'''on'''d'''e
|ध (dh)<br />{{IPA|/d̪ʱə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/d̪/}}
|न (n)<br />{{IPA|/nə/}}; Spanish: to'''n'''to
|-align="center"
|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
|प (p)<br />{{IPA|/pə/}}; English: s'''p'''in
|फ (ph)<br />{{IPA|/pʰə/}}; English: '''p'''it
|ब (b)<br />{{IPA|/bə/}}; English: '''b'''one
|भ (bh)<br />{{IPA|/bʱə/}}; English: a'''bh'''or
|म (m)<br />{{IPA|/mə/}}; English: '''m'''ine
|-
|}
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!align="center" colspan="5"|'''Non-Plosives/Sonorants'''
|-
!
![[Palatal]]
![[Retroflex]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar]]
![[Labiovelar|(Labio)]][[velar]]/<br />[[Glottal]]
|-align="center"
|[[Approximant]]
|य (y)<br />{{IPA|/jə/}}; English: '''y'''ou
|र (r)<br />{{IPA|/ɾə/}}; Spanish: ma'''r'''tes
|ल (l)<br />{{IPA|/lə/}}; British English: '''l'''ove
|व (v)<br />{{IPA|/ʋə/}}; ≈Italian: '''vu'''oto
|-align="center"
|[[Sibilant]]/<br />[[Fricative]]
|श (ś)<br />{{IPA|/ʃə/}}; English: '''sh'''ip
|ष ({{Unicode|ṣ}})<br />{{IPA|/ʂə/}}; Retroflex form of {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|स (s)<br />{{IPA|/sə/}}; English: '''s'''ame
|ह (h)<br />{{IPA|/ɦə/}}; ≈English '''h'''ome
|-
|}
 
At the end of the traditional table of alphabets, three cosonantal clusters are also added: क्ष {{IPA|/kʃə/}} (k{{Unicode|ṣ}}) (in Hindi), त्र {{IPA|/t̪ɾə/}} (tr) and ज्ञ {{IPA|/gjə/}} (jñ) (in Hindi; pronounced as {{IPA|/ɟɲə/}} + nasalization in Sanskrit). Other than these, sounds borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic are written with a dot (''bindu'' or ''nukta'') beneath the nearest approximate letter. They are not included in the traditional listing. Many native Hindi speakers, especially those who come from rural backgrounds and do not speak proper Khariboli or Urdu, confuse these sounds (except {{IPA|/ɽ/ and /ɽʱ/}}) and pronounce them as the nearest equivalents in Sanskritized Hindi (listed in column 5). These are:
 
{|class="wikitable"
|+'''Extra sounds'''
|-
!Symbol
!IPA Pronunciation and name
![[IAST]] equiv.
!English (etc.) equiv.
!Confused with:
|-align="center"
|क़
|{{IPA|/qə/}} [[voiceless uvular plosive]]
|q
|Arabic: '''Q'''ur'an
|{{IPA|/k/}}
|-align="center"
|ख़
|{{IPA|/xə/}} [[voiceless velar fricative]]
|{{Unicode|k͟h}}
|German: do'''ch'''
|{{IPA|/kʰ/}}
|-align="center"
|ग़
|{{IPA|/ɣə/}} [[voiced velar fricative]]
|Persian: Mu'''gh'''al
|{{IPA|/g/}}
|-align="center"
|ज़
|{{IPA|/zə/}} [[voiced alveolar fricative]]
|z
|English: '''z'''oo
|{{IPA|/ɟ/ ''or'' /dʒ/}}
|-align="center"
|फ़
|{{IPA|/fə/}} [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]
|f
|English: '''f'''un
|{{IPA|/pʰ/}}
|-align="center"
|ड़
|{{IPA|/ɽə/}} [[unaspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|{{Unicode|ṛ}}
|<none>
|
|-align="center"
|ढ़
|{{IPA|/ɽʱə/}} [[aspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|{{Unicode|ṛh}}
|<none>
|
|-
|}
 
 
Additional points:
* The "r" of Sanskrit is as in Standard American English. In modern Sanskrit pronunciation, the vowel "{{Unicode|ṛ}}" is sometimes realised as {{IPA|/ri/}} or {{IPA|/ru/}}, although many people (especially if their native language retains the original Sanskrit sounds, as is the case in [[Malayalam]]) do make the {{IPA|/r/}} sound. In Hindi, {{IPA|/r/}} is pronounced as in Spanish pe'''rr'''o. Also note that both ऋ and ड़ use "{{Unicode|ṛ}}" in [[IAST]] transliteration.
* There is no retroflex flap in Sanskrit. In modern Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages, they have sprung up as the allophonic flap variants of Sanskrit's simple voiced retroflex plosives. The {{IPA|/ɳ/}} ({{Unicode|ṇ}} or ण) in Sanskrit is not a flap but a simple nasal stop, although it is pronounced by modern pundits while chanting as a nasal variant of the voiced retroflex flap. Hindi has two proper retroflex flaps.
* Aspiration is actually a puff of breath that may follow a plosive consonant. English speakers could try pronouncing the words "kite", "take", "chip" and "pat" with a greater-than-usual puff of breath after the first consonant. The corresponding unaspirated plosives must be pronounced with no significant puff of breath at all.
* For practicing the voiced aspirates, one could try: "drag him", "said him", "enrage him", "grab him". The voiced aspirated plosives (also called murmur stops) are extremely important and frequent in Sanskrit. Sanskrit (and its daughters) is the only language that has faithfully preserved these original Proto-Indo-European stops.
* The dental consonants in Sanskrit are as in Spanish or French. They can be pronounced by pronouncing {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} (of English) by pressing the tip of the tongue against the back of the teeth rather than against the back of the alveolar ridge as done by English speakers. The normal "t" and "d" in [[IAST]] transliteration are the dental stops; and they occur much, much more frequently than the retroflex stops.
* The retroflex consonants are the most difficult to pronounce. They are pronounced by curling the tongue such that its tip touches the roof of the mouth, like how Americans pronounce "r". The retroflex flaps are pronounced in a similar way, by bringing the tongue's tip to the roof of the mouth and giving it a sharp flap downwards. However, bringing the tip of the tongue a bit above the normal alveolar ridge would also work fine. The normal alveolar plosives of English {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} do not exist as such in Sanskrit/Hindi.
* The palatal plosives of Sanskrit/Hindi do not have a sharp frictional sound following them, as what happened in English '''ch'''ips and '''j'''am. These are more of pure plosives than affricates.
* Sanskrit/Hindi has no {{IPA|/v/}}. Its nearest equivalent is {{IPA|/ʋ/}}, which is very close to {{IPA|/v/}}, but does not a friction or buzzing sound associated with it. But in consonant clusters, this may allophonically change to {{IPA|/w/}}.
* The palatal sibilant of Sanskrit ([[IAST]]: ś) is very close to like the English ''sh'' in '''sh'''ip (although the Sanskrit phoneme is the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative {{IPA|/ɕ/}}) while the English phoneme is the voiceless postalveolar fricative {{IPA|/ʃ/}} with lip rounding). Today, speakers of Sanskrit vary the palatal fricative from {{IPA|/ɕ/}} to {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. In Hindi, it is always pronounced as in '''sh'''ip.
* The retroflex sibilant {{IPA|/ʂ/}} is pronounced like {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, but with the tongue curled upwards towards the roof of the mouth. In Mādhyandini branch of Yajurveda, this phoneme is allowed to be pronounced at certain places as {{IPA|/ kʰ/}}. In Hindi, this is pronounced as the English ''sh'' in '''sh'''ip.
* The Sanskrit {{IPA|/ɦ/}} is a voiced allophone of the normal h. In Hindi, it is pronounced as in '''h'''ome.
Another consonant is <span style="font-size:14pt;">ळ</span> is not used in [[Hindi language|Hindi]]. It is retroflex, and used in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]].
 
==== [[Ligature (typography)|Ligatures]] ====
Consonant clusters of two or more phonemes are realized by combining the aksharas into ligatures. Typically, the preceding akshara loses its vertical stroke and is put in direct contact with the succeeding one. In cases of aksharas that do not have vertical strokes in their independent form, the following aksharas are usually placed underneath the preceding one. In some cases, the ligatures take forms not readily recognizable as composed of the individual aksharas (e.g. &lt;jñ&gt;). Consonant clusters involving &lt;r&gt; are treated as a special case: preceding &lt;r-&gt; is realized as a right-facing hook above the following akshara, and following &lt;-r&gt; appears as a slanted stroke attached to the vertical stroke of the preceding akshara. Similarly for a cluster /XYZa/, both X and Y would be "halved". There are many variants for this consonant cluster writing in Devanāgarī script. The most common system is shown below for the traditional table. Here the second vowel is taken to be /n/, followed by the [[schwa]].
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-align="center"
|'''ka-group'''||क्न <br />{{IPA|/knə/}} || ख्न <br />{{IPA|/kʰnə/}} ||ग्न <br />{{IPA|/gnə/}} ||घ्न <br />{{IPA|/gʱnə/}} ||ङ्न <br />{{IPA|/ŋnə/}}
|-align="center"
|'''cha-group'''||च्न <br />{{IPA|/cnə/}} ||छ्न <br />{{IPA|/cʰnə/}} ||ज्न <br />{{IPA|/ɟnə/}} ||झ्न <br />{{IPA|/ɟʱnə/}} ||ञ्न <br />{{IPA|/ɲnə/}}
|-align="center"
|'''Ta-group'''||ट्न <br />{{IPA|/ʈnə/}} ||ठ्न <br />{{IPA|/ʈʰnə/}} ||ड्न <br />{{IPA|/ɖnə/}} ||ढ्न <br />{{IPA|/ɖʱnə/}} ||ण्न <br />{{IPA|/ɳnə/}}
|-align="center"
|'''ta-group'''||त्न <br />{{IPA|/t̪nə/}} ||थ्न <br />{{IPA|/t̪ʰnə/}} ||द्न <br />{{IPA|/d̪nə/}} ||ध्न <br />{{IPA|/d̪ʱnə/}} ||न्न <br />{{IPA|/nnə/}}
|-align="center"
|'''pa-group'''||प्न <br />{{IPA|/pnə/}} ||फ्न <br />{{IPA|/pʰnə/}} ||ब्न <br />{{IPA|/bnə/}} ||भ्न <br />{{IPA|/bʱnə/}} ||म्न <br />{{IPA|/mnə/}}
|-align="center"
|'''ya-group'''||य्न <br />{{IPA|/ynə/}} ||र्न <br />{{IPA|/rnə/}} ||ल्न <br />{{IPA|/lnə/}} ||व्न <br />{{IPA|/ʋnə/}} ||
|-align="center"
|'''va-group'''||श्न <br />{{IPA|/ɕnə/}} ||ष्न <br />{{IPA|/ʂnə/}} ||स्न <br />{{IPA|/snə/}} ||ह्न <br />{{IPA|/ɦnə/}} ||
|-
|}
 
=== Diacritics ===
 
* अं (called ''[[anusvāra]]''), pronounced as {{IPA|/ⁿ/}} ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ṃ}}) is used for nasalizing the vowel in the syllable, the word-final allophone of /m/ and /n/. The diacritic {{Unicode|ँ}} (called ''chandrabindu''/''anunāsika'') is used in certain shakhas instead of the ''anusvāra'' in certain phonetic contexts.
 
* अः (called ''[[visarga]]''), pronounced as {{IPA|/əh/}} ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ḥ}}) is the word-final allophone of {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/r/}}.
 
* If a lonely consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a ''halanta/[[virāma]]'' diacritic below (प्).
 
* [[avagraha]] ऽ is used in western editions to mark elision of a word-initial {{IPA|/a/}} in [[sandhi]].
 
==== Accent marks ====
{{main|Vedic accent}}
The [[pitch accent]] of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] is written with various symbols depending on [[shakha]]. In the [[Rigveda]], ''anudatta'' is written with a bar below the line (॒), ''svarita'' with a stroke above the line (॑) while ''udatta'' is unmarked.
 
=== ल्याआखः ===
{{Seealso|Indian numerals|Brahmi numerals|Hindu-Arabic numeral system}}
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|+ '''Devanāgarī numerals'''
|- style="font-size:14pt;"
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४
| ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4
| 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-
|}
 
== Encodings ==